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Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center: P-38 Lightning, with B-29 Enola Gay behind it
In the P-38 Lockheed engineer Clarence "Kelly" Johnson and his team of designers created one of the most successful twin-engine fighters ever flown by any nation. From 1942 to 1945, U. S. Army Air Forces pilots flew P-38s over Europe, the Mediterranean, and the Pacific, and from the frozen Aleutian Islands to the sun-baked deserts of North Africa. Lightning pilots in the Pacific theater downed more Japanese aircraft than pilots flying any other Allied warplane.
Maj. Richard I. Bong, America's leading fighter ace, flew this P-38J-10-LO on April 16, 1945, at Wright Field, Ohio, to evaluate an experimental method of interconnecting the movement of the throttle and propeller control levers. However, his right engine exploded in flight before he could conduct the experiment.
Dimensions: Overall: 390 x 1170cm, 6345kg, 1580cm (12ft 9 9/16in. x 38ft 4 5/8in., 13988.2lb., 51ft 10 1/16in.)
Materials: All-metal
Physical Description: Twin-tail boom and twin-engine fighter; tricycle landing gear.
Long Description: From 1942 to 1945, the thunder of P-38 Lightnings was heard around the world. U. S. Army pilots flew the P-38 over Europe, the Mediterranean, and the Pacific; from the frozen Aleutian Islands to the sun-baked deserts of North Africa. Measured by success in combat, Lockheed engineer Clarence "Kelly" Johnson and a team of designers created the most successful twin-engine fighter ever flown by any nation. In the Pacific Theater, Lightning pilots downed more Japanese aircraft than pilots flying any other Army Air Forces warplane.
Johnson and his team conceived this twin-engine, single-pilot fighter airplane in 1936 and the Army Air Corps authorized the firm to build it in June 1937. Lockheed finished constructing the prototype XP-38 and delivered it to the Air Corps on New Year's Day, 1939. Air Corps test pilot and P-38 project officer, Lt. Benjamin S. Kelsey, first flew the aircraft on January 27. Losing this prototype in a crash at Mitchel Field, New York, with Kelsey at the controls, did not deter the Air Corps from ordering 13 YP-38s for service testing on April 27. Kelsey survived the crash and remained an important part of the Lightning program. Before the airplane could be declared ready for combat, Lockheed had to block the effects of high-speed aerodynamic compressibility and tail buffeting, and solve other problems discovered during the service tests.
The most vexing difficulty was the loss of control in a dive caused by aerodynamic compressibility. During late spring 1941, Air Corps Major Signa A. Gilke encountered serious trouble while diving his Lightning at high-speed from an altitude of 9,120 m (30,000 ft). When he reached an indicated airspeed of about 515 kph (320 mph), the airplane's tail began to shake violently and the nose dropped until the dive was almost vertical. Signa recovered and landed safely and the tail buffet problem was soon resolved after Lockheed installed new fillets to improve airflow where the cockpit gondola joined the wing center section. Seventeen months passed before engineers began to determine what caused the Lightning's nose to drop. They tested a scale model P-38 in the Ames Laboratory wind tunnel operated by the NACA (National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics) and found that shock waves formed when airflow over the wing leading edges reached transonic speeds. The nose drop and loss of control was never fully remedied but Lockheed installed dive recovery flaps under each wing in 1944. These devices slowed the P-38 enough to allow the pilot to maintain control when diving at high-speed.
Just as the development of the North American P-51 Mustang, Republic P-47 Thunderbolt, and the Vought F4U Corsair (see NASM collection for these aircraft) pushed the limits of aircraft performance into unexplored territory, so too did P-38 development. The type of aircraft envisioned by the Lockheed design team and Air Corps strategists in 1937 did not appear until June 1944. This protracted shakedown period mirrors the tribulations suffered by Vought in sorting out the many technical problems that kept F4U Corsairs off U. S. Navy carrier decks until the end of 1944.
Lockheed's efforts to trouble-shoot various problems with the design also delayed high-rate, mass production. When Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, the company had delivered only 69 Lightnings to the Army. Production steadily increased and at its peak in 1944, 22 sub-contractors built various Lightning components and shipped them to Burbank, California, for final assembly. Consolidated-Vultee (Convair) subcontracted to build the wing center section and the firm later became prime manufacturer for 2,000 P-38Ls but that company's Nashville plant completed only 113 examples of this Lightning model before war's end. Lockheed and Convair finished 10,038 P-38 aircraft including 500 photo-reconnaissance models. They built more L models, 3,923, than any other version.
To ease control and improve stability, particularly at low speeds, Lockheed equipped all Lightnings, except a batch ordered by Britain, with propellers that counter-rotated. The propeller to the pilot's left turned counter-clockwise and the propeller to his right turned clockwise, so that one propeller countered the torque and airflow effects generated by the other. The airplane also performed well at high speeds and the definitive P-38L model could make better than 676 kph (420 mph) between 7,600 and 9,120 m (25,000 and 30,000 ft). The design was versatile enough to carry various combinations of bombs, air-to-ground rockets, and external fuel tanks. The multi-engine configuration reduced the Lightning loss-rate to anti-aircraft gunfire during ground attack missions. Single-engine airplanes equipped with power plants cooled by pressurized liquid, such as the North American P-51 Mustang (see NASM collection), were particularly vulnerable. Even a small nick in one coolant line could cause the engine to seize in a matter of minutes.
The first P-38s to reach the Pacific combat theater arrived on April 4, 1942, when a version of the Lightning that carried reconnaissance cameras (designated the F-4), joined the 8th Photographic Squadron based in Australia. This unit launched the first P-38 combat missions over New Guinea and New Britain during April. By May 29, the first 25 P-38s had arrived in Anchorage, Alaska. On August 9, pilots of the 343rd Fighter Group, Eleventh Air Force, flying the P-38E, shot down a pair of Japanese flying boats.
Back in the United States, Army Air Forces leaders tried to control a rumor that Lightnings killed their own pilots. On August 10, 1942, Col. Arthur I. Ennis, Chief of U. S. Army Air Forces Public Relations in Washington, told a fellow officer "… Here's what the 4th Fighter [training] Command is up against… common rumor out there that the whole West Coast was filled with headless bodies of men who jumped out of P-38s and had their heads cut off by the propellers." Novice Lightning pilots unfamiliar with the correct bailout procedures actually had more to fear from the twin-boom tail, if an emergency dictated taking to the parachute but properly executed, Lightning bailouts were as safe as parachuting from any other high-performance fighter of the day. Misinformation and wild speculation about many new aircraft was rampant during the early War period.
Along with U. S. Navy Grumman F4F Wildcats (see NASM collection) and Curtiss P-40 Warhawks (see NASM collection), Lightnings were the first American fighter airplanes capable of consistently defeating Japanese fighter aircraft. On November 18, men of the 339th Fighter Squadron became the first Lightning pilots to attack Japanese fighters. Flying from Henderson Field on Guadalcanal, they claimed three during a mission to escort Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress bombers (see NASM collection).
On April 18, 1943, fourteen P-38 pilots from the 70th and the 339th Fighter Squadrons, 347th Fighter Group, accomplished one of the most important Lightning missions of the war. American ULTRA cryptanalysts had decoded Japanese messages that revealed the timetable for a visit to the front by the commander of the Imperial Japanese Navy, Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto. This charismatic leader had crafted the plan to attack Pearl Harbor and Allied strategists believed his loss would severely cripple Japanese morale. The P-38 pilots flew 700 km (435 miles) at heights from 3-15 m (10-50 feet) above the ocean to avoid detection. Over the coast of Bougainville, they intercepted a formation of two Mitsubishi G4M BETTY bombers (see NASM collection) carrying the Admiral and his staff, and six Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters (see NASM collection) providing escort. The Lightning pilots downed both bombers but lost Lt. Ray Hine to a Zero.
In Europe, the first Americans to down a Luftwaffe aircraft were Lt. Elza E. Shahan flying a 27th Fighter Squadron P-38E, and Lt. J. K. Shaffer flying a Curtiss P-40 (see NASM collection) in the 33rd Fighter Squadron. The two flyers shared the destruction of a Focke-Wulf Fw 200C-3 Condor maritime strike aircraft over Iceland on August 14, 1942. Later that month, the 1st fighter group accepted Lightnings and began combat operations from bases in England but this unit soon moved to fight in North Africa. More than a year passed before the P-38 reappeared over Western Europe. While the Lightning was absent, U. S. Army Air Forces strategists had relearned a painful lesson: unescorted bombers cannot operate successfully in the face of determined opposition from enemy fighters. When P-38s returned to England, the primary mission had become long-range bomber escort at ranges of about 805 kms (500 miles) and at altitudes above 6,080 m (20,000 ft).
On October 15, 1943, P-38H pilots in the 55th Fighter Group flew their first combat mission over Europe at a time when the need for long-range escorts was acute. Just the day before, German fighter pilots had destroyed 60 of 291 Eighth Air Force B-17 Flying Fortresses (see NASM collection) during a mission to bomb five ball-bearing plants at Schweinfurt, Germany. No air force could sustain a loss-rate of nearly 20 percent for more than a few missions but these targets lay well beyond the range of available escort fighters (Republic P-47 Thunderbolt, see NASM collection). American war planners hoped the long-range capabilities of the P-38 Lightning could halt this deadly trend, but the very high and very cold environment peculiar to the European air war caused severe power plant and cockpit heating difficulties for the Lightning pilots. The long-range escort problem was not completely solved until the North American P-51 Mustang (see NASM collection) began to arrive in large numbers early in 1944.
Poor cockpit heating in the H and J model Lightnings made flying and fighting at altitudes that frequently approached 12,320 m (40,000 ft) nearly impossible. This was a fundamental design flaw that Kelly Johnson and his team never anticipated when they designed the airplane six years earlier. In his seminal work on the Allison V-1710 engine, Daniel Whitney analyzed in detail other factors that made the P-38 a disappointing airplane in combat over Western Europe.
• Many new and inexperienced pilots arrived in England during December 1943, along with the new J model P-38 Lightning.
• J model rated at 1,600 horsepower vs. 1,425 for earlier H model Lightnings. This power setting required better maintenance between flights. It appears this work was not done in many cases.
• During stateside training, Lightning pilots were taught to fly at high rpm settings and low engine manifold pressure during cruise flight. This was very hard on the engines, and not in keeping with technical directives issued by Allison and Lockheed.
• The quality of fuel in England may have been poor, TEL (tetraethyl lead) fuel additive appeared to condense inside engine induction manifolds, causing detonation (destructive explosion of fuel mixture rather than controlled burning).
• Improved turbo supercharger intercoolers appeared on the J model P-38. These devices greatly reduced manifold temperatures but this encouraged TEL condensation in manifolds during cruise flight and increased spark plug fouling.
Using water injection to minimize detonation might have reduced these engine problems. Both the Republic P-47 Thunderbolt and the North American P-51 Mustang (see NASM collection) were fitted with water injection systems but not the P-38. Lightning pilots continued to fly, despite these handicaps.
During November 1942, two all-Lightning fighter groups, the 1st and the 14th, began operating in North Africa. In the Mediterranean Theater, P-38 pilots flew more sorties than Allied pilots flying any other type of fighter. They claimed 608 enemy a/c destroyed in the air, 123 probably destroyed and 343 damaged, against the loss of 131 Lightnings.
In the war against Japan, the P-38 truly excelled. Combat rarely occurred above 6,080 m (20,000 ft) and the engine and cockpit comfort problems common in Europe never plagued pilots in the Pacific Theater. The Lightning's excellent range was used to full advantage above the vast expanses of water. In early 1945, Lightning pilots of the 12th Fighter Squadron, 18th Fighter Group, flew a mission that lasted 10 ½ hours and covered more than 3,220 km (2,000 miles). In August, P-38 pilots established the world's long-distance record for a World War II combat fighter when they flew from the Philippines to the Netherlands East Indies, a distance of 3,703 km (2,300 miles). During early 1944, Lightning pilots in the 475th Fighter Group began the 'race of aces.' By March, Lieutenant Colonel Thomas J. Lynch had scored 21 victories before he fell to antiaircraft gunfire while strafing enemy ships. Major Thomas B. McGuire downed 38 Japanese aircraft before he was killed when his P-38 crashed at low altitude in early January 1945. Major Richard I. Bong became America's highest scoring fighter ace (40 victories) but died in the crash of a Lockheed P-80 (see NASM collection) on August 6, 1945.
Museum records show that Lockheed assigned the construction number 422-2273 to the National Air and Space Museum's P-38. The Army Air Forces accepted this Lightning as a P-38J-l0-LO on November 6, 1943, and the service identified the airplane with the serial number 42-67762. Recent investigations conducted by a team of specialists at the Paul E. Garber Facility, and Herb Brownstein, a volunteer in the Aeronautics Division at the National Air and Space Museum, have revealed many hitherto unknown aspects to the history of this aircraft.
Brownstein examined NASM files and documents at the National Archives. He discovered that a few days after the Army Air Forces (AAF) accepted this airplane, the Engineering Division at Wright Field in Dayton, Ohio, granted Lockheed permission to convert this P-38 into a two-seat trainer. The firm added a seat behind the pilot to accommodate an instructor who would train civilian pilots in instrument flying techniques. Once trained, these test pilots evaluated new Lightnings fresh off the assembly line.
In a teletype sent by the Engineering Division on March 2, 1944, Brownstein also discovered that this P-38 was released to Colonel Benjamin S. Kelsey from March 3 to April 10, 1944, to conduct special tests. This action was confirmed the following day in a cable from the War Department. This same pilot, then a Lieutenant, flew the XP-38 across the United States in 1939 and survived the crash that destroyed this Lightning at Mitchel Field, New York. In early 1944, Kelsey was assigned to the Eighth Air Force in England and he apparently traveled to the Lockheed factory at Burbank to pick up the P-38. Further information about these tests and Kelsey's involvement remain an intriguing question.
One of Brownstein's most important discoveries was a small file rich with information about the NASM Lightning. This file contained a cryptic reference to a "Major Bong" who flew the NASM P-38 on April 16, 1945, at Wright Field. Bong had planned to fly for an hour to evaluate an experimental method of interconnecting the movement of the throttle and propeller control levers. His flight ended after twenty-minutes when "the right engine blew up before I had a chance [to conduct the test]." The curator at the Richard I. Bong Heritage Center confirmed that America's highest scoring ace made this flight in the NASM P-38 Lightning.
Working in Building 10 at the Paul E. Garber Facility, Rob Mawhinney, Dave Wilson, Wil Lee, Bob Weihrauch, Jim Purton, and Heather Hutton spent several months during the spring and summer of 2001 carefully disassembling, inspecting, and cleaning the NASM Lightning. They found every hardware modification consistent with a model J-25 airplane, not the model J-10 painted in the data block beneath the artifact's left nose. This fact dovetails perfectly with knowledge uncovered by Brownstein. On April 10, the Engineering Division again cabled Lockheed asking the company to prepare 42-67762 for transfer to Wright Field "in standard configuration." The standard P-38 configuration at that time was the P-38J-25. The work took several weeks and the fighter does not appear on Wright Field records until May 15, 1944. On June 9, the Flight Test Section at Wright Field released the fighter for flight trials aimed at collecting pilot comments on how the airplane handled.
Wright Field's Aeromedical Laboratory was the next organization involved with this P-38. That unit installed a kit on July 26 that probably measured the force required to move the control wheel left and right to actuate the power-boosted ailerons installed in all Lightnings beginning with version J-25. From August 12-16, the Power Plant Laboratory carried out tests to measure the hydraulic pump temperatures on this Lightning. Then beginning September 16 and lasting about ten days, the Bombing Branch, Armament Laboratory, tested type R-3 fragmentation bomb racks. The work appears to have ended early in December. On June 20, 1945, the AAF Aircraft Distribution Office asked that the Air Technical Service Command transfer the Lightning from Wright Field to Altus Air Force Base, Oklahoma, a temporary holding area for Air Force museum aircraft. The P-38 arrived at the Oklahoma City Air Depot on June 27, 1945, and mechanics prepared the fighter for flyable storage.
Airplane Flight Reports for this Lightning also describe the following activities and movements:
6-21-45 Wright Field, Ohio, 5.15 hours of flying. 6-22-45Wright Field, Ohio, .35 minutes of flying by Lt. Col. Wendel [?] J. Kelley and P. Shannon. 6-25-45Altus, Oklahoma, .55 hours flown, pilot P. Shannon. 6-27-45Altus, Oklahoma, #2 engine changed, 1.05 hours flown by Air Corps F/O Ralph F. Coady. 10-5-45 OCATSC-GCAAF (Garden City Army Air Field, Garden City, Kansas), guns removed and ballast added. 10-8-45Adams Field, Little Rock, Arkansas. 10-9-45Nashville, Tennessee, 5-28-46Freeman Field, Indiana, maintenance check by Air Corps Capt. H. M. Chadhowere [sp]? 7-24-46Freeman Field, Indiana, 1 hour local flight by 1st Lt. Charles C. Heckel. 7-31-46 Freeman Field, Indiana, 4120th AAF Base Unit, ferry flight to Orchard Place [Illinois] by 1st Lt. Charles C. Heckel.
On August 5, 1946, the AAF moved the aircraft to another storage site at the former Consolidated B-24 bomber assembly plant at Park Ridge, Illinois. A short time later, the AAF transferred custody of the Lightning and more than sixty other World War II-era airplanes to the Smithsonian National Air Museum. During the early 1950s, the Air Force moved these airplanes from Park Ridge to the Smithsonian storage site at Suitland, Maryland.
The P-38J was introduced in August 1943. The turbo-supercharger intercooler system on previous variants had been housed in the leading edges of the wings and had proven vulnerable to combat damage and could burst if the wrong series of controls were mistakenly activated. In the P-38J model, the streamlined engine nacelles of previous Lightnings were changed to fit the intercooler radiator between the oil coolers, forming a "chin" that visually distinguished the J model from its predecessors. While the P-38J used the same V-1710-89/91 engines as the H model, the new core-type intercooler more efficiently lowered intake manifold temperatures and permitted a substantial increase in rated power. The leading edge of the outer wing was fitted with 55 gal (208 l) fuel tanks, filling the space formerly occupied by intercooler tunnels, but these were omitted on early P-38J blocks due to limited availability.
The final 210 J models, designated P-38J-25-LO, alleviated the compressibility problem through the addition of a set of electrically-actuated dive recovery flaps just outboard of the engines on the bottom centerline of the wings. With these improvements, a USAAF pilot reported a dive speed of almost 600 mph (970 km/h), although the indicated air speed was later corrected for compressibility error, and the actual dive speed was lower. Lockheed manufactured over 200 retrofit modification kits to be installed on P-38J-10-LO and J-20-LO already in Europe, but the USAAF C-54 carrying them was shot down by an RAF pilot who mistook the Douglas transport for a German Focke-Wulf Condor. Unfortunately the loss of the kits came during Lockheed test pilot Tony LeVier's four-month morale-boosting tour of P-38 bases. Flying a new Lightning named "Snafuperman" modified to full P-38J-25-LO specs at Lockheed's modification center near Belfast, LeVier captured the pilots' full attention by routinely performing maneuvers during March 1944 that common Eighth Air Force wisdom held to be suicidal. It proved too little too late because the decision had already been made to re-equip with Mustangs.
The P-38J-25-LO production block also introduced hydraulically-boosted ailerons, one of the first times such a system was fitted to a fighter. This significantly improved the Lightning's rate of roll and reduced control forces for the pilot. This production block and the following P-38L model are considered the definitive Lightnings, and Lockheed ramped up production, working with subcontractors across the country to produce hundreds of Lightnings each month.
Noted P-38 pilots
Richard Bong and Thomas McGuire
The American ace of aces and his closest competitor both flew Lightnings as they tallied 40 and 38 victories respectively. Majors Richard I. "Dick" Bong and Thomas J. "Tommy" McGuire of the USAAF competed for the top position. Both men were awarded the Medal of Honor.
McGuire was killed in air combat in January 1945 over the Philippines, after racking up 38 confirmed kills, making him the second-ranking American ace. Bong was rotated back to the United States as America's ace of aces, after making 40 kills, becoming a test pilot. He was killed on 6 August 1945, the day the atomic bomb was dropped on Japan, when his P-80 Shooting Star jet fighter flamed out on takeoff.
Charles Lindbergh
The famed aviator Charles Lindbergh toured the South Pacific as a civilian contractor for United Aircraft Corporation, comparing and evaluating performance of single- and twin-engined fighters for Vought. He worked to improve range and load limits of the F4U Corsair, flying both routine and combat strafing missions in Corsairs alongside Marine pilots. In Hollandia, he attached himself to the 475th FG flying P-38s so that he could investigate the twin-engine fighter. Though new to the machine, he was instrumental in extending the range of the P-38 through improved throttle settings, or engine-leaning techniques, notably by reducing engine speed to 1,600 rpm, setting the carburetors for auto-lean and flying at 185 mph (298 km/h) indicated airspeed which reduced fuel consumption to 70 gal/h, about 2.6 mpg. This combination of settings had been considered dangerous; it was thought it would upset the fuel mixture and cause an explosion. Everywhere Lindbergh went in the South Pacific, he was accorded the normal preferential treatment of a visiting colonel, though he had resigned his Air Corps Reserve colonel's commission three years before. While with the 475th, he held training classes and took part in a number of Army Air Corps combat missions. On 28 July 1944, Lindbergh shot down a Mitsubishi Ki-51 "Sonia" flown expertly by the veteran commander of 73rd Independent Flying Chutai, Imperial Japanese Army Captain Saburo Shimada. In an extended, twisting dogfight in which many of the participants ran out of ammunition, Shimada turned his aircraft directly toward Lindbergh who was just approaching the combat area. Lindbergh fired in a defensive reaction brought on by Shimada's apparent head-on ramming attack. Hit by cannon and machine gun fire, the "Sonia's" propeller visibly slowed, but Shimada held his course. Lindbergh pulled up at the last moment to avoid collision as the damaged "Sonia" went into a steep dive, hit the ocean and sank. Lindbergh's wingman, ace Joseph E. "Fishkiller" Miller, Jr., had also scored hits on the "Sonia" after it had begun its fatal dive, but Miller was certain the kill credit was Lindbergh's. The unofficial kill was not entered in the 475th's war record. On 12 August 1944 Lindbergh left Hollandia to return to the United States.
Charles MacDonald
The seventh-ranking American ace, Charles H. MacDonald, flew a Lightning against the Japanese, scoring 27 kills in his famous aircraft, the Putt Putt Maru.
Robin Olds was the last P-38 ace in the Eighth Air Force and the last in the ETO. Flying a P-38J, he downed five German fighters on two separate missions over France and Germany. He subsequently transitioned to P-51s to make seven more kills. After World War II, he flew F-4 Phantom IIs in Vietnam, ending his career as brigadier general with 16 kills.
Clay Tice
A P-38 piloted by Clay Tice was the first American aircraft to land in Japan after VJ-Day, when he and his wingman set down on Nitagahara because his wingman was low on fuel.
Antoine de Saint-Exupéry
Noted aviation pioneer and writer Antoine de Saint-Exupéry vanished in a F-5B-1-LO, 42-68223, c/n 2734, of Groupe de Chasse II/33, out of Borgo-Porreta, Bastia, Corsica, a reconnaissance variant of the P-38, while on a flight over the Mediterranean, from Corsica to mainland France, on 31 July 1944. His health, both physical and mental (he was said to be intermittently subject to depression), had been deteriorating and there had been talk of taking him off flight status. There have been suggestions (although no proof to date) that this was a suicide rather than an aircraft failure or combat loss. In 2000, a French scuba diver found the wreckage of a Lightning in the Mediterranean off the coast of Marseille, and it was confirmed in April 2004 as Saint-Exupéry's F-5B. No evidence of air combat was found. In March 2008, a former Luftwaffe pilot, Horst Rippert from Jagdgruppe 200, claimed to have shot down Saint-Exupéry.
Adrian Warburton
The RAF's legendary photo-recon "ace", Wing Commander Adrian Warburton DSO DFC, was the pilot of a Lockheed P-38 borrowed from the USAAF that took off on 12 April 1944 to photograph targets in Germany. W/C Warburton failed to arrive at the rendezvous point and was never seen again. In 2003, his remains were recovered in Germany from his wrecked USAAF P-38 Lightning.
Boeing's B-29 Superfortress was the most sophisticated propeller-driven bomber of World War II and the first bomber to house its crew in pressurized compartments. Although designed to fight in the European theater, the B-29 found its niche on the other side of the globe. In the Pacific, B-29s delivered a variety of aerial weapons: conventional bombs, incendiary bombs, mines, and two nuclear weapons.
On August 6, 1945, this Martin-built B-29-45-MO dropped the first atomic weapon used in combat on Hiroshima, Japan. Three days later, Bockscar (on display at the U.S. Air Force Museum near Dayton, Ohio) dropped a second atomic bomb on Nagasaki, Japan. Enola Gay flew as the advance weather reconnaissance aircraft that day. A third B-29, The Great Artiste, flew as an observation aircraft on both missions.
Dimensions: Overall: 900 x 3020cm, 32580kg, 4300cm (29ft 6 5/16in. x 99ft 1in., 71825.9lb., 141ft 15/16in.)
Materials: Polished overall aluminum finish
Physical Description: Four-engine heavy bomber with semi-monoqoque fuselage and high-aspect ratio wings. Polished aluminum finish overall, standard late-World War II Army Air Forces insignia on wings and aft fuselage and serial number on vertical fin; 509th Composite Group markings painted in black; "Enola Gay" in black, block letters on lower left nose.the best weight loss program
Ventral view of flower of Arachis hypogaea ... Chụp gần mặt dưới của hoa đậu Phộng, Lạc ...
Image by Vietnam Plants & The USA. plants Vietnamese named : Đậu phộng, đậu phụng, Lạc English names : Peanut Scientist name : Arachis hypogaea Synonyms : Family : Fabaceae / Papillionoides . Họ Đậu / họ phụ đậu Papillionoides
Lạc - Thức ăn, vị thuốc quý trong mùa đông Cập nhật ngày 21/10/2008 lúc 8:52:00 AM. Số lượt đọc: 46.
Không phải ngẫu nhiên mà lạc được người Trung Quốc đặt cho những cái tên thật đẹp như hoa sinh, quả trường sinh, đường nhân đậu... Các bộ phận của lạc dùng làm thuốc rất quý là cây, lá, củ, nhân và màng bọc ngoài của nhân, dầu lạc... có những tác dụng như dưỡng huyết, bổ tỳ, nhuận phế, hóa đàm và chữa được một số căn bệnh như thai phụ bị phù, loét dạ dày và hành tá tràng...
Thông tin chung
Tên thường gọi: Lạc Tên khác: Đậu phộng Tên tiếng Anh: peanut, groundnut Tên la tinh: Arachis hypogaea L. Thuộc họ Đậu - Fabaceae
Mô tả
Cây thảo hằng năm. Thân phân nhánh từ gốc, có các cành toả ra. Lá lông chim, có 4 lá chét hình trái xoan ngược. Lá kèm 2, làm thành bẹ bao quanh thân, hình dải nhọn. Cụm hoa chùm ở nách, gồm 2-4 hoa nhỏ, màu vàng. Quả không chia đôi, hình trụ thuôn, thon lại giữa các hạt, có vân mạng. Hạt hình trứng, có rãnh dọc.
Sinh thái
Mùa hoa tháng 5-6.
Bộ phận dùng
Hạt, dây lá.
Nơi sống và thu hái
Gốc ở Brazin, được nhập vào trồng ở nước ta từ lâu.
Hạt thường được dùng làm thực phẩm. Dây lá dùng tươi.
Thành phần hoá học
Hạt chứa nước 3-5%, chất đạm 20-30% chất béo 40-50%; chất bột 20%, chất vô cơ2-4%. Trong thành phần chất đạm (protein) có một globulin là arachin (60-70%) và một albumin là conarachin (25-40%) cả hai chất này đều không tan trong nước. Cả arachin và conarachin đều cho các acid amin như methionin, tryptophan và d-threonin. Thành phần chủ yếu trong nhân lạc là dầu lạc. Nó gồm các glycerid của acid béo no và không no, với tỷ lệ thay đổi rất nhiều tuỳ theo loại lạc, acid oleic 51-79%; acid linoleic 7,4-26%, acid palmitic 8,5% acid stearic 4,5-6,2%, acid hexaconic 0,1-0,4% và 2 acid chỉ thấy trong dầu lạc là acid arachidic và acid lignoceric.
Nhân lạc có các chất protein, chất dầu béo, amino acid: lecithin, purin, alkaloid, calcium, phosphore, sắt. Chất lysin trong hạt lạc có tác dụng phòng ngừa lão suy sớm và giúp phát triển trí tuệ của trẻ em. Acid glutamic và acid aspartic thúc đẩy sự phát triển tế bào não và tăng cường trí nhớ, ngoài ra chất catechin trong lạc cũng có tác dụng chống lão suy. Vitamin E, cephalin và lecithin có trong dầu lạc có thể phân giải cholesterol trong gan thành bile acid và tăng cường sự bài tiết chúng, giúp làm giảm cholesterol trong máu, phòng ngừa bệnh xơ cứng động mạch và bệnh ở mạch vành tim, thúc đẩy tế bào não phát triển; ngăn ngừa sự lão hóa của da, làm đẹp và khỏe da. Màng bọc ngoài của nhân lạc có tác dụng chống sự hòa tan của fibrin, thúc đẩy công năng tạo tiểu cầu của tủy xương, rút ngắn thời gian chảy máu, do đó có tác dụng cầm máu tốt. Trong vỏ cứng của củ lạc có chất luteolin có tác dụng hạ huyết áp, chất beta - stosterol có tác dụng hạ mỡ máu.
Tính vị, tác dụng
Theo Đông y, nhân lạc có tính bình, vị ngọt béo. Có tác dụng nhuận phế, hòa vị, trừ đàm, chỉ huyết. Chủ yếu dùng để chữa ho khan, ít sữa, thiếu máu, thiếu tiểu cầu, bệnh dạ dày mạn tính, viêm thận mạn, cước khí.
Vỏ lụa (hóa sinh y) của nhân lạc chữa xuất huyết như xuất huyết do thiếu tiểu cầu ở bệnh sốt xuất huyết, xuất huyết nguyên phát hay thứ phát. Vỏ lụa cầm máu mạnh hơn nhân lạc 50 lần.
Vỏ cứng ngoài cùng đem nấu lấy nước có tác dụng hạ huyết áp, giãn mạch làm lưu thông máu.
Lạc có vị ngọt, bùi, béo có tác dụng bổ tỳ, dưỡng vị, nhuận phế, lợi tràng. Trong hạt lạc có một chất cầm máu, có tác dụng trên trương lực cơ và tác dụng do làm co thắt các động mạch. Do thành phần protein và chất béo, lạc có tác dụng dinh dưỡng rất cao.
Công dụng, chỉ định và phối hợp: Lạc được dùng làm thực phẩm ở nhiều nước. Dầu lạc được dùng làm dầu ăn và chế thuốc (dùng làm dung môi trong dầu tiêm, dầu xoa ngoài), Lạc cũng được chỉ dẫn dùng trong bệnh suy nhược (làm việc quá sức), lao lực. Còn dùng làm dịu các cơn đau bụng, và phối hợp với Quế, Gừng, làm dịu các cơn đau bụng kinh. Thân và lá dùng chữa bệnh trướng khí ruột kết.
Một số bài thuốc chữa bệnh
Ho đờm nhiều: Nhân lạc 30g, nấu chín nhừ cho vào trong 30g mật ong, ngày ăn 2 lần.
Ho lâu ngày không khỏi: Nhân lạc, táo tàu, mật ong, mỗi thứ 30g sắc lấy nước, ngày uống 2 lần.
Ho lâu ngày, khí đoản, đờm ít: Nhân lạc 15g, hạnh nhân ngọt 15g, giã nát, mỗi lần làm 10g, thêm mật ong lượng vừa phải, hòa với nước sôi ăn.
Viêm khí quản mạn tính: Dùng vào buổi sáng và tối, mỗi lần ăn 30g lạc.
Tiếng nói khàn: Nhân lạc (để cả màng mỏng ngoài nhân) 60-100g, nấu ăn. Ngày ăn một lần, hoặc cho mật ong lượng vừa phải vào ăn cùng càng tốt.
Tăng huyết áp:
- Nhân lạc để cả màng mỏng ngoài nhân, ngâm trong giấm, bịt kín miệng lọ, ăn sau khi ngâm 1 tuần, mỗi lần ăn 10 hạt, ngày ăn 2 lần.
- Vỏ cứng củ lạc, mỗi lần 125g, nấu lấy nước uống hoặc nấu vỏ lạc nghiền vụn, lấy nước uống mỗi lần 10g, ngày uống 3 lần.
- Lá lạc, thân cây lạc non, mỗi thứ 30g, sắc lấy nước uống, ngày 1 thang.
Bạch cầu giảm:
- Màng mỏng bọc nhân lạc 10g, táo tàu 10 quả, nấu ăn.
- Nhân lạc, ý dĩ nhân (hạt bo bo), đậu đỏ loại nhỏ hạt, táo tàu, mỗi thứ 30g, nấu ăn, ngày 1 thang.
Thiếu máu
- Nhân lạc 100g, táo tàu, đường đỏ, mỗi thứ 50g; nấu nhừ lên ăn, ngày 1 thang.
- Nhân lạc, đậu đỏ, đậu xanh, mỗi thứ 30g; đường đỏ, đường trắng, đường phèn, mỗi thứ 10g; nấu nhừ ăn, mỗi ngày 1 thang.
- Nhân lạc, hạt sen (bỏ vỏ và tâm sen), mỗi thứ 30g; cẩu khởi 15g, táo tàu 9 quả, đường đỏ lượng vừa phải, cho 300ml nước vào nấu cách thủy cho nhừ, ngày ăn 1-2 lần.
Loét dạ dày và hành tá tràng:
- Lạc nhân 100g, nấu lẫn với thịt lợn hoặc trứng gà để ăn. Mỗi buổi sáng sau khi đánh răng, rửa mặt, ăn 2 thìa lạc đã nấu, nửa giờ sau bắt đầu ăn sáng, dùng liên tục như vậy 1-2 tuần là thấy rõ kết quả.
Đi tiểu ra máu do vận động nhiều:
- Lạc nhân, hạt sen (bỏ vỏ cứng và tâm sen) mỗi thứ 30g; Nấu sôi xong cho lửa nhỏ hầm thật nhừ, sau đó 1 thìa đường vào đun tiếp, một lúc sau đem ăn, 2 ngày ăn 1 lần.
- Màng mỏng bọc ngoài nhân lạc khoảng nửa chén con, đem rang khô, nghiền vụn, hòa nước uống ngày 1-2 lần.
Di tinh: Màng mỏng bọc ngoài nhân lạc 6g, nấu lấy nước uống, ngày 2 lần.
Đau khớp: Rễ cây lạc 60g, nấu với ít thịt lợn nạc thật nhừ để ăn.
Viêm mũi: Lạc nhân 30g, nấu chín, cho thêm ít đường phèn ăn hết trong ngày, ăn liền trong 2 tuần như vậy là một liệu trình.
Chú ý:
- Những người có thể hàn thấp đình trệ và tiêu chảy kiêng ăn lạc.
- Nếu ăn nhiều lạc rang quá sẽ dễ bị động hỏa (người cồn cào khó chịu, dễ cáu giận).
- Tuyệt đối không ăn lạc đã bị nấm mốc. Anhtai (sưu tầm, theo báo Sức khỏe & Đời sống
Lạc, Ðậu phọng - Arachis hypogaea L. thuộc họ Ðậu - Fabaceae.
Mô tả: Cây thảo hằng năm. Thân phân nhánh từ gốc, có các cành toả ra. Lá lông chim, có 4 lá chét hình trái xoan ngược. Lá kèm 2, làm thành bẹ bao quanh thân, hình dải nhọn. Cụm hoa chùm ở nách, gồm 2-4 hoa nhỏ, màu vàng. Quả không chia đôi, hình trụ thuôn, thon lại giữa các hạt, có vân mạng. Hạt hình trứng, có rãnh dọc.
Mùa hoa tháng 5-6.
Bộ phận dùng: Hạt, dây lá - Semen et Caulis Arachitis Hypogaeae.
Nơi sống và thu hái: Gốc ở Brazin, được nhập vào trồng ở nước ta từ lâu.
Hạt thường được dùng làm thực phẩm. Dây lá dùng tươi.
Thành phần hoá học: Hạt chứa nước 3-5%, chất đạm 20-30% chất béo 40-50%; chất bột 20%, chất vô cơ2-4%. Trong thành phần chất đạm (protein) có một globulin là arachin (60-70%) và một albumin là conarachin (25-40%) cả hai chất này đều không tan trong nước. Cả arachin và conarachin đều cho các acid amin như methionin, tryptophan và d-threonin. Thành phần chủ yếu trong nhân lạc là dầu lạc. Nó gồm các glycerid của acid béo no và không no, với tỷ lệ thay đổi rất nhiều tuỳ theo loại lạc, acid oleic 51-79%; acid linoleic 7,4-26%, acid palmitic 8,5% acid stearic 4,5-6,2%, acid hexaconic 0,1-0,4% và 2 acid chỉ thấy trong dầu lạc là acid arachidic và acid lignoceric.
Tính vị, tác dụng: Lạc có vị ngọt, bùi, béo có tác dụng bổ tỳ, dưỡng vị, nhuận phế, lợi tràng. Trong hạt lạc có một chất cầm máu, có tác dụng trên trương lực cơ và tác dụng do làm co thắt các động mạch. Do thành phần protein và chất béo, lạc có tác dụng dinh dưỡng rất cao.
Công dụng, chỉ định và phối hợp: Lạc được dùng làm thực phẩm ở nhiều nước. Dầu lạc được dùng làm dầu ăn và chế thuốc (dùng làm dung môi trong dầu tiêm, dầu xoa ngoài), Lạc cũng được chỉ dẫn dùng trong bệnh suy nhược (làm việc quá sức), lao lực. Còn dùng làm dịu các cơn đau bụng, và phối hợp với Quế, Gừng, làm dịu các cơn đau bụng kinh. Thân và lá dùng chữa bệnh trướng khí ruột kết.
Ðơn thuốc:
1. Chữa ho sốt đờm: Dùng 20g lạc giã dập, sắc uống nhắp nhắp thì lợi đờm, bớt ho.
2. Chữa đại tiện táo kết: Uống 1 chén dầu lạc thì nhuận tràng.
3. Người bệnh mới khỏi sút cân và phụ nữ ít sữa, nên ăn bột lạc rang, thêm muối và cháo Nếp nấu lẫn bột Củ mài, mỗi buổi sáng, ăn liền vài tuần thì có kết quả.
4. Phụ nữ bị hư lao ho lâu. Dùng dây lạc khô sắc uống với bã gạc hươu (lộc giác sương) tán bột mỗi lần uống 4g vào buổi sáng.
The peanut, or groundnut (Arachis hypogaea), is a species in the legume "bean" family (Fabaceae). The cultivated peanut was probably first domesticated in the valleys of Perú.[1] It is an annual herbaceous plant growing 30 to 50 cm (0.98 to 1.6 ft) tall. The leaves are opposite, pinnate with four leaflets (two opposite pairs; no terminal leaflet), each leaflet 1 to 7 cm (⅜ to 2¾ in) long and 1 to 3 cm (⅜ to 1 inch) broad. The flowers are a typical peaflower in shape, 2 to 4 cm (¾ to 1½ in) across, yellow with reddish veining. After pollination, the fruit develops into a legume 3 to 7 cm (1.2 to 2.8 in) long, containing 1 to 4 seeds, which forces its way underground to mature. Hypogaea means "under the earth." Peanuts are known by many other local names, like earthnuts, ground nuts, goober peas, monkey nuts, pygmy nuts and pig nuts.
History
The domesticated peanut is an amphidiploid or allotetraploid, meaning that it has two sets of chromosomes from two different species, thought to be A. duranensis and A. ipaensis. These likely combined in the wild to form the tetraploid species A. monticola, which gave rise to the domesticated peanut.[2] This domestication might have taken place in Paraguay or Bolivia, where the wildest strains grow today. In fact, many pre-Columbian cultures, such as the Moche, depicted peanuts in their art.[3] Archeologists have (thus far) dated the oldest specimens to about 7,600 years found in Peru .[4] Cultivation spread as far as Mesoamerica where the Spanish conquistadors found the tlalcacahuatl (Nahuatl = "cacao", whence Mexican Spanish, cacahuate and French, cacahuète) being offered for sale in the marketplace of Tenochtitlan (Mexico City). The plant was later spread worldwide by European traders.
Cultivation
The orange veined, yellow petaled, pea-like flower of the Arachis hypogaea is borne in axillary clusters above ground. Following self-pollination, the flowers fade and wither. The stalk at the base of the ovary, called the pedicel, elongates rapidly, and turns downward to bury the fruits several inches in the ground, where they complete their development. The entire plant, including most of the roots, is removed from the soil during harvesting.[5] The pods act in nutrient absorption. The fruits have wrinkled shells that are constricted between pairs of the one to four (usually two) seeds per pod. Peanuts grow best in light, sandy loam soil. They require five months of warm weather, and an annual rainfall of 500 to 1,000 mm (20 to 39 in) or the equivalent in irrigation water.[2] The pods ripen 120 to 150 days after the seeds are planted. If the crop is harvested too early, the pods will be unripe. If they are harvested late, the pods will snap off at the stalk, and will remain in the soil.[5] Peanuts are particularly susceptible to contamination during growth and storage. Poor storage of peanuts can lead to an infection by the mold fungus Aspergillus flavus, releasing the toxic substance aflatoxin. The aflatoxin-producing molds exist throughout the peanut growing areas and may produce aflatoxin in peanuts when conditions are favorable to fungal growth. Harvesting occurs in two stages. In mechanized systems a machine is used to cut off the main root of the peanut plant by cutting through the soil just below the level of the peanut pods. The machine lifts the "bush" from the ground and shakes it, then inverts the bush, leaving the plant upside down on the ground to keep the peanuts out of the dirt. This allows the peanuts to dry slowly to a bit less than a third of their original moisture level over a period of 3–4 days. Traditionally, peanuts are pulled and inverted by hand. After the peanuts have dried sufficiently, they are threshed, removing the peanut pods from the rest of the bush
Cultivation in China
The peanut was introduced to China by Portuguese traders in the 17th century and another variety by American missionaries in the 19th century.[citation needed] They became popular and are featured in many Chinese dishes, often being boiled. During the 1980s peanut production began to increase greatly so that as of 2006 China was the world's largest peanut producer. A major factor in this increase was the household-responsibility system, which moved financial control from the government to the farmers
Production China leads in production of peanuts having a share of about 41.5% of overall world production, followed by India (18.2%) and the United States of America (6.8%).
Cultivars
Thousands of peanut cultivars are grown, with four major cultivar groups being the most popular: Spanish, Runner, Virginia, and Valencia. There are also Tennessee Red and Tennessee White groups. Certain cultivar groups are preferred for particular uses because of differences in flavor, oil content, size, shape, and disease resistance. For many uses the different cultivars are interchangeable. Most peanuts marketed in the shell are of the Virginia type, along with some Valencias selected for large size and the attractive appearance of the shell. Spanish peanuts are used mostly for peanut candy, salted nuts, and peanut butter. Most Runners are used to make peanut butter. The various types are distinguished by branching habit and branch length. There are numerous varieties of each type of peanut. There are two main growth forms, bunch and runner. Bunch types grow upright, while runner types grow near the ground. Each year new cultivars of peanuts are bred and introduced. Introducing a new cultivar may mean change in the planting rate, adjusting the planter, harvester, dryer, cleaner, sheller, and method of marketing.
Uses
Peanuts are found in a wide range of grocery products. Popular confections include salted peanuts, peanut butter (sandwiches, candy bars, and cups), peanut brittle, and shelled nuts (plain/roasted). Salted peanuts are usually roasted in oil and packed in retail size, plastic bags or hermetically sealed cans. Dry roasted, salted peanuts are also marketed in significant quantities. Peanuts are often a major ingredient in mixed nuts because of their inexpensiveness compared to Brazil nuts, cashews, walnuts, and so on. The primary use of peanut butter is in the home, but large quantities are also used in the commercial manufacture of sandwiches, candy, and bakery products. Boiled peanuts are a preparation of raw, unshelled green peanuts boiled in brine and typically eaten as a snack in the southern United States where most peanuts are grown. More recently, fried peanut recipes have emerged - allowing both shell and nut to be eaten. Peanuts are also used in cosmetics, nitroglycerin, plastics, dyes and paints (see George Washington Carver, who described a large amount of uses for peanuts)
Peanut oil Peanut oil is often used in cooking, because it has a mild flavor and a relatively high smoke point. Due to its high monounsaturated content it is considered more healthy than saturated oils, and is resistant to rancidity. There are several types of peanut oil including: aromatic roasted peanut oil, refined peanut oil, extra virgin or cold pressed peanut oil and peanut extract. In the United States, refined peanut oil is exempt from allergen labeling laws Peanut flour Peanut flour is lower in fat than peanut butter, and is popular with chefs because its high protein content makes it suitable as a flavor enhancer[citation needed]. Peanut flour is used as a gluten-free solution.
Peru Peanuts are common ingredients in Peruvian Creole cuisine reflecting the marriage of native ingredients and ingredients introduced by Europeans. In one example peanuts are roasted along with hot peppers (both native to South America) and blended with roasted onions, garlic, and oil (all of European origin) to make a smooth sauce poured over boiled potatoes. This dish is especially famous in the city of Arequipa and is known as "papas con ocopa". Another example combines a similar mixture with sautéed seafood or boiled and shredded chicken in the form of a fricassee. These dishes are generally known as ajis (the word for hot peppers), such as aji de pollo and aji de mariscos. Not all cooks use peanuts in seafood "ajis". During Colonial times the Spanish in Peru learned to use ingredients like peanuts in substitution for nuts which were unavailable in Peru. It is well-documented that Spanish cuisine makes extensive use of almonds, pine nuts, and other nuts, in ground or paste form, combined with rice, meats and vegetables, to create dishes like rice pilaf. However, almonds, pine nuts, chestnuts, walnuts, etc. were too expensive or unobtainable in Peru.
India/Pakistan In south Asian countries, peanuts are known as either a light snack by themselves, usually roasted and salted, and often sold roasted in pod on roads in the north, or boiled with salt in the south. They are also made into little dessert or sweet snack pieces by processing with refined sugar and jaggery. Indian cuisine uses roasted, crushed peanuts to give a crunchy body to salads; they are added whole (without pods) to leafy vegetable stews for the same reason.
Southeast Asia Peanuts are also widely used in Southeast Asian cuisine, particularly Indonesia, where they are typically made into a spicy sauce. Peanuts originally came to Indonesia from the Philippines, where the legume came from Mexico in times of Spanish colonization. Common Indonesian peanut-based dishes include gado-gado, pecel, karedok and ketoprak, all vegetable salads mixed with peanut sauce, and the peanut-based sauce for satay.
Zambia/Malawi Peanuts are a common ingredient of several types of relishes (dishes which accompany nshima) eaten by the tribes in Malawi and in the eastern part of Zambia, and these dishes are now common throughout both countries. In this area they are always called groundnuts.
South Africa [edit]The United States In the US, peanuts are used in candies, cakes, cookies, and other sweets. They are also enjoyed roasted and salted. Peanut butter is one of the most popular peanut-based foods in the US. In some southern portions of the US, peanuts are boiled for several hours until soft and moist.
Boiled peanuts Boiled peanuts are a popular snack in the southern United States, as well as in India and China. Peanuts are also used in the Mali meat stew maafe, and in many sauces for South American meat dishes, especially rabbit.
Malnutrition Peanuts are used to help fight malnutrition. Plumpy Nut and Medika Mamba[10] are high protein, high energy and high nutrient peanut-based pastes that were developed to be used as a therapeutic food to aid in famine relief. Organizations like the World Health Organization, UNICEF, Project Peanut Butter and Doctors Without Borders have used these products to help save malnourished children in developing countries.
Other uses Peanuts can be used like other legumes and grains to make a lactose-free milk-like beverage, peanut milk. Peanut plant tops are used for hay. Low grade or culled peanuts not suitable for the edible market are used in the production of peanut oil. The protein cake (oilcake meal) residue from oil processing is used as an animal feed and as a soil fertilizer. Low grade peanuts are also widely sold as a garden bird feed. Peanuts have a variety of industrial end uses. Paint, varnish, lubricating oil, leather dressings, furniture polish, insecticides, and nitroglycerin are made from peanut oil. Soap is made from saponified oil, and many cosmetics contain peanut oil and its derivatives. The protein portion of the oil is used in the manufacture of some textile fibers. Peanut shells are used in the manufacture of plastic, wallboard, abrasives, fuel, cellulose (used in rayon and paper) and mucilage (glue). Rudolf Diesel ran some of the first engines that bear his name on peanut oil[11] and it is still seen as a potentially useful fuel
Nutritional value
Peanut, valencia, raw Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) Energy2,385 kJ (570 kcal) Carbohydrates21 g Sugars0.0 g Dietary fiber9 g Fat48 g saturated7 g monounsaturated24 g polyunsaturated16 g Protein25 g Tryptophan0.244 g Threonine0.859 g Isoleucine0.882 g Leucine1.627 g Lysine0.901 g Methionine0.308 g Cystine0.322 g Phenylalanine1.300 g Tyrosine1.020 g Valine1.052 g Arginine3.001 g Histidine0.634 g Alanine0.997 g Aspartic acid3.060 g Glutamic acid5.243 g Glycine1.512 g Proline1.107 g Serine1.236 g Water4.26 g Thiamine (Vit. B1)0.6 mg (46%) Riboflavin (Vit. B2)0.3 mg (20%) Niacin (Vit. B3)12.9 mg (86%) Pantothenic acid (B5)1.8 mg (36%) Vitamin B60.3 mg (23%) Folate (Vit. B9)246 μg (62%) Vitamin C0.0 mg (0%) Calcium62 mg (6%) Iron2 mg (16%) Magnesium184 mg (50%) Phosphorus336 mg (48%) Potassium332 mg (7%) Zinc3.3 mg (33%) Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient database [edit]Health benefits Peanuts are rich in nutrients, providing over 30 essential nutrients and phytonutrients. Peanuts are a good source of niacin, folate, fiber, magnesium, vitamin E, manganese and phosphorus. They also are naturally free of trans-fats and sodium, and contain about 25% protein (a higher proportion than in any true nut).[13] While peanuts are considered high in fat, they primarily contain “good” fats also known as unsaturated fats. One serving of peanuts contains 11.5 g unsaturated fat and 2 g of saturated fat. In fact, peanuts have been linked well enough to their heart-healthy benefits, in 2003, the Food and Drug Administration released a health claim recognizing peanuts in helping maintain one's cholesterol: Scientific evidence suggests, but does not prove, that eating 1.5 ounces per day of most nuts, including peanuts as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol, may reduce the risk of heart disease. Some brands of peanut butter are fortified with omega-3 fatty acid in the form of flaxseed oil to balance the ratio of omega-3 to omega-6 fatty acids.
Niacin Peanuts are a good source of niacin, and thus contribute to brain health and blood flow.
Antioxidants Recent research on peanuts and nuts in general has found antioxidants and other chemicals that may provide health benefits. New research shows peanuts rival the antioxidant content of many fruits. Roasted peanuts rival the antioxidant content of blackberries and strawberries, and are far richer in antioxidants than carrots or beets. Research conducted by a team of University of Florida scientists, published in the journal Food Chemistry, shows that peanuts contain high concentrations of antioxidant polyphenols, primarily a compound called p-coumaric acid, and that roasting can increase peanuts' p-coumaric acid levels, boosting their overall antioxidant content by as much as 22%
Resveratrol Peanuts are a significant source of resveratrol, a chemical studied for potential anti-aging effects and also associated with reduced cardiovascular disease and reduced cancer risk.[17] It has recently been found that the average amount of resveratrol in one ounce of commonly eaten peanuts (15 whole peanut kernels) is 73 μg
Coenzyme Q10 Peanuts are a source of coenzyme Q10, as are oily fish, beef, soybeans and spinach.
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This plate is a great tool to help with portion control. It has 24 increments of measurements, including teaspoons, tablespoons, cups and ounces. It can be used by anyone trying to understand portion control, and is a great tool for diabetic patients. The device is an excellent visual teaching tool to assist educators. It is microwave and dishwasher safe. Instructional booklet is provided.
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An english made Stone-Carrier air-conditioner of MÁV 44, Silver Arrow, Kádár-train
Image by granada_turnier MÁV 44 or "Silver Arrow" or "Kádár-train" was a hungarian governmental train from 1968 by Rába and Ganz factories. It was built because the communist dictator Kádár was afraid of airplanes. It was the only train in Europe which was built for this kind of purpose. Many state officials, communist party leaders have travelled on it, e. g. Brezhnev, Kim Il-Sung or Queen Juliana of the Netherlands. The whole chassis has been given extra strengthening and window panes were thickers as usual. The design of the interieur reflects the '60s and '70s of course. It contains a few sleeping, dining, meeting and shower rooms, rooms for listening to radio, kitchens. It is very well soundproofed, you can't hear the sounds of the two Ganz 13 VFE diesel engines nor the background noises or air-conditioners (it was the first air-conditioned vehicle of the hungarian state railways, MÁV). It has closed telephone network, transceivers, speakerphones. It's range on a tank is 1200-1300kms, max. speed 120km/h. They made a separate locomotor in the same design in 1970. It was alwasy running 10 minutes ahead of the Silver Arrow to check and secure the secret route. The staff was never know when or where they had to appear to serve. The train was always alone on its line, no other vehicle was allowed to use the same line at the same time. Rail crossings and overpasses were closed, and the line was controled by machine gun guards - they were stand 500m from each other. The train was consorted by a helicopter sometimes. Some of the reached destinations in its active years: Wien, Berlin, Prague, Varsaw, Bucharest. It couldn't reach Moscow because of the different standard of the railway track used by the Sovietunion.Sound Conditioner
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Image by scanlime Hacking a digital bathroom scale to use as a general-purpose weight sensor or input device.
