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Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center: Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird panorama


Image by Chris Devers
See more photos of this, and the Wikipedia article.

Details, quoting from Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum | Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird:

No reconnaissance aircraft in history has operated globally in more hostile airspace or with such complete impunity than the SR-71, the world's fastest jet-propelled aircraft. The Blackbird's performance and operational achievements placed it at the pinnacle of aviation technology developments during the Cold War.

This Blackbird accrued about 2,800 hours of flight time during 24 years of active service with the U.S. Air Force. On its last flight, March 6, 1990, Lt. Col. Ed Yielding and Lt. Col. Joseph Vida set a speed record by flying from Los Angeles to Washington, D.C., in 1 hour, 4 minutes, and 20 seconds, averaging 3,418 kilometers (2,124 miles) per hour. At the flight's conclusion, they landed at Washington-Dulles International Airport and turned the airplane over to the Smithsonian.

Transferred from the United States Air Force.

Manufacturer:
Lockheed Aircraft Corporation

Designer:
Clarence L. "Kelly" Johnson

Date:
1964

Country of Origin:
United States of America

Dimensions:
Overall: 18ft 5 15/16in. x 55ft 7in. x 107ft 5in., 169998.5lb. (5.638m x 16.942m x 32.741m, 77110.8kg)
Other: 18ft 5 15/16in. x 107ft 5in. x 55ft 7in. (5.638m x 32.741m x 16.942m)

Materials:
Titanium

Physical Description:
Twin-engine, two-seat, supersonic strategic reconnaissance aircraft; airframe constructed largley of titanium and its alloys; vertical tail fins are constructed of a composite (laminated plastic-type material) to reduce radar cross-section; Pratt and Whitney J58 (JT11D-20B) turbojet engines feature large inlet shock cones.

Long Description:
No reconnaissance aircraft in history has operated in more hostile airspace or with such complete impunity than the SR-71 Blackbird. It is the fastest aircraft propelled by air-breathing engines. The Blackbird's performance and operational achievements placed it at the pinnacle of aviation technology developments during the Cold War. The airplane was conceived when tensions with communist Eastern Europe reached levels approaching a full-blown crisis in the mid-1950s. U.S. military commanders desperately needed accurate assessments of Soviet worldwide military deployments, particularly near the Iron Curtain. Lockheed Aircraft Corporation's subsonic U-2 (see NASM collection) reconnaissance aircraft was an able platform but the U. S. Air Force recognized that this relatively slow aircraft was already vulnerable to Soviet interceptors. They also understood that the rapid development of surface-to-air missile systems could put U-2 pilots at grave risk. The danger proved reality when a U-2 was shot down by a surface to air missile over the Soviet Union in 1960.

Lockheed's first proposal for a new high speed, high altitude, reconnaissance aircraft, to be capable of avoiding interceptors and missiles, centered on a design propelled by liquid hydrogen. This proved to be impracticable because of considerable fuel consumption. Lockheed then reconfigured the design for conventional fuels. This was feasible and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), already flying the Lockheed U-2, issued a production contract for an aircraft designated the A-12. Lockheed's clandestine 'Skunk Works' division (headed by the gifted design engineer Clarence L. "Kelly" Johnson) designed the A-12 to cruise at Mach 3.2 and fly well above 18,288 m (60,000 feet). To meet these challenging requirements, Lockheed engineers overcame many daunting technical challenges. Flying more than three times the speed of sound generates 316° C (600° F) temperatures on external aircraft surfaces, which are enough to melt conventional aluminum airframes. The design team chose to make the jet's external skin of titanium alloy to which shielded the internal aluminum airframe. Two conventional, but very powerful, afterburning turbine engines propelled this remarkable aircraft. These power plants had to operate across a huge speed envelope in flight, from a takeoff speed of 334 kph (207 mph) to more than 3,540 kph (2,200 mph). To prevent supersonic shock waves from moving inside the engine intake causing flameouts, Johnson's team had to design a complex air intake and bypass system for the engines.

Skunk Works engineers also optimized the A-12 cross-section design to exhibit a low radar profile. Lockheed hoped to achieve this by carefully shaping the airframe to reflect as little transmitted radar energy (radio waves) as possible, and by application of special paint designed to absorb, rather than reflect, those waves. This treatment became one of the first applications of stealth technology, but it never completely met the design goals.

Test pilot Lou Schalk flew the single-seat A-12 on April 24, 1962, after he became airborne accidentally during high-speed taxi trials. The airplane showed great promise but it needed considerable technical refinement before the CIA could fly the first operational sortie on May 31, 1967 - a surveillance flight over North Vietnam. A-12s, flown by CIA pilots, operated as part of the Air Force's 1129th Special Activities Squadron under the "Oxcart" program. While Lockheed continued to refine the A-12, the U. S. Air Force ordered an interceptor version of the aircraft designated the YF-12A. The Skunk Works, however, proposed a "specific mission" version configured to conduct post-nuclear strike reconnaissance. This system evolved into the USAF's familiar SR-71.

Lockheed built fifteen A-12s, including a special two-seat trainer version. Two A-12s were modified to carry a special reconnaissance drone, designated D-21. The modified A-12s were redesignated M-21s. These were designed to take off with the D-21 drone, powered by a Marquart ramjet engine mounted on a pylon between the rudders. The M-21 then hauled the drone aloft and launched it at speeds high enough to ignite the drone's ramjet motor. Lockheed also built three YF-12As but this type never went into production. Two of the YF-12As crashed during testing. Only one survives and is on display at the USAF Museum in Dayton, Ohio. The aft section of one of the "written off" YF-12As which was later used along with an SR-71A static test airframe to manufacture the sole SR-71C trainer. One SR-71 was lent to NASA and designated YF-12C. Including the SR-71C and two SR-71B pilot trainers, Lockheed constructed thirty-two Blackbirds. The first SR-71 flew on December 22, 1964. Because of extreme operational costs, military strategists decided that the more capable USAF SR-71s should replace the CIA's A-12s. These were retired in 1968 after only one year of operational missions, mostly over southeast Asia. The Air Force's 1st Strategic Reconnaissance Squadron (part of the 9th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing) took over the missions, flying the SR-71 beginning in the spring of 1968.

After the Air Force began to operate the SR-71, it acquired the official name Blackbird-- for the special black paint that covered the airplane. This paint was formulated to absorb radar signals, to radiate some of the tremendous airframe heat generated by air friction, and to camouflage the aircraft against the dark sky at high altitudes.

Experience gained from the A-12 program convinced the Air Force that flying the SR-71 safely required two crew members, a pilot and a Reconnaissance Systems Officer (RSO). The RSO operated with the wide array of monitoring and defensive systems installed on the airplane. This equipment included a sophisticated Electronic Counter Measures (ECM) system that could jam most acquisition and targeting radar. In addition to an array of advanced, high-resolution cameras, the aircraft could also carry equipment designed to record the strength, frequency, and wavelength of signals emitted by communications and sensor devices such as radar. The SR-71 was designed to fly deep into hostile territory, avoiding interception with its tremendous speed and high altitude. It could operate safely at a maximum speed of Mach 3.3 at an altitude more than sixteen miles, or 25,908 m (85,000 ft), above the earth. The crew had to wear pressure suits similar to those worn by astronauts. These suits were required to protect the crew in the event of sudden cabin pressure loss while at operating altitudes.

To climb and cruise at supersonic speeds, the Blackbird's Pratt & Whitney J-58 engines were designed to operate continuously in afterburner. While this would appear to dictate high fuel flows, the Blackbird actually achieved its best "gas mileage," in terms of air nautical miles per pound of fuel burned, during the Mach 3+ cruise. A typical Blackbird reconnaissance flight might require several aerial refueling operations from an airborne tanker. Each time the SR-71 refueled, the crew had to descend to the tanker's altitude, usually about 6,000 m to 9,000 m (20,000 to 30,000 ft), and slow the airplane to subsonic speeds. As velocity decreased, so did frictional heat. This cooling effect caused the aircraft's skin panels to shrink considerably, and those covering the fuel tanks contracted so much that fuel leaked, forming a distinctive vapor trail as the tanker topped off the Blackbird. As soon as the tanks were filled, the jet's crew disconnected from the tanker, relit the afterburners, and again climbed to high altitude.

Air Force pilots flew the SR-71 from Kadena AB, Japan, throughout its operational career but other bases hosted Blackbird operations, too. The 9th SRW occasionally deployed from Beale AFB, California, to other locations to carryout operational missions. Cuban missions were flown directly from Beale. The SR-71 did not begin to operate in Europe until 1974, and then only temporarily. In 1982, when the U.S. Air Force based two aircraft at Royal Air Force Base Mildenhall to fly monitoring mission in Eastern Europe.

When the SR-71 became operational, orbiting reconnaissance satellites had already replaced manned aircraft to gather intelligence from sites deep within Soviet territory. Satellites could not cover every geopolitical hotspot so the Blackbird remained a vital tool for global intelligence gathering. On many occasions, pilots and RSOs flying the SR-71 provided information that proved vital in formulating successful U. S. foreign policy. Blackbird crews provided important intelligence about the 1973 Yom Kippur War, the Israeli invasion of Lebanon and its aftermath, and pre- and post-strike imagery of the 1986 raid conducted by American air forces on Libya. In 1987, Kadena-based SR-71 crews flew a number of missions over the Persian Gulf, revealing Iranian Silkworm missile batteries that threatened commercial shipping and American escort vessels.

As the performance of space-based surveillance systems grew, along with the effectiveness of ground-based air defense networks, the Air Force started to lose enthusiasm for the expensive program and the 9th SRW ceased SR-71 operations in January 1990. Despite protests by military leaders, Congress revived the program in 1995. Continued wrangling over operating budgets, however, soon led to final termination. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration retained two SR-71As and the one SR-71B for high-speed research projects and flew these airplanes until 1999.

On March 6, 1990, the service career of one Lockheed SR-71A Blackbird ended with a record-setting flight. This special airplane bore Air Force serial number 64-17972. Lt. Col. Ed Yeilding and his RSO, Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Vida, flew this aircraft from Los Angeles to Washington D.C. in 1 hour, 4 minutes, and 20 seconds, averaging a speed of 3,418 kph (2,124 mph). At the conclusion of the flight, '972 landed at Dulles International Airport and taxied into the custody of the Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum. At that time, Lt. Col. Vida had logged 1,392.7 hours of flight time in Blackbirds, more than that of any other crewman.

This particular SR-71 was also flown by Tom Alison, a former National Air and Space Museum's Chief of Collections Management. Flying with Detachment 1 at Kadena Air Force Base, Okinawa, Alison logged more than a dozen '972 operational sorties. The aircraft spent twenty-four years in active Air Force service and accrued a total of 2,801.1 hours of flight time.

Wingspan: 55'7"
Length: 107'5"
Height: 18'6"
Weight: 170,000 Lbs

Reference and Further Reading:

Crickmore, Paul F. Lockheed SR-71: The Secret Missions Exposed. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 1996.

Francillon, Rene J. Lockheed Aircraft Since 1913. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1987.

Johnson, Clarence L. Kelly: More Than My Share of It All. Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1985.

Miller, Jay. Lockheed Martin's Skunk Works. Leicester, U.K.: Midland Counties Publishing Ltd., 1995.

Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird curatorial file, Aeronautics Division, National Air and Space Museum.

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Chụp hình vào ngày 29-7-2011 , tại Thủ Thiêm, thành phố Hồ chí Minh, miền Nam Việt- Nam.

Taken on July 29, 2011 in Thu Thiem, Ho chi Minh city, Southern of Vietnam.

Vietnamese named : Kê voi, Lúa Miêu, Kê Ngọc..
Common names : Bulrush Millet, Pearl Millet, Dukn (the Sudan), Bajra (India), Babala (Natal).
Scientist name : Pennisetum americanum (L.) Leeke
Synonyms : Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br. , Cenchrus americanus (L.) Morrone, Pennisetum typhoides auct. non (Burm.) Stapf & C.E. Hubbard
Family : Poaceae – Grass family
Group : Monocot
Duration : Annual - Perennial
Growth Habit : Graminoid
Kingdom : Plantae – Plants
Subkingdom : Tracheobionta – Vascular plants
Superdivision : Spermatophyta – Seed plants
Division : Magnoliophyta – Flowering plants
Class : Liliopsida – Monocotyledons
Subclass : Commelinidae
Order : Cyperales
Genus : Pennisetum Rich. ex Pers. – fountaingrass
Species : Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br. – pearl millet

**** newvietart.com/index4.282.html : truy tìm gốc tích cây Kê.

**** www2.hcmuaf.edu.vn/contents.php?ur=dothiloi&ids=2095
1. Lập xong bản đồ gen cây kê

Các chuyên gia ở Bộ nông nghiệp và Viện nghiên cứu di truyền Mỹ vừa lập xong bản đồ gen của cây kê (hay còn gọi là lúa miến), một loại cây lương thực khá phổ biến ở các vùng có khí hậu ấm. Đây là cây lương thực chủ đạo ở Mỹ, chỉ đứng sau cây ngô và cũng là loại cây lương thực đầu vào rất phổ biến cho ngành công nghiệp sản xuất nhiên liệu sinh học rất khả thi vì hạt kê có hàm lượng ethanol cao, sử dụng ít hơn tới 1/3 lượng nước khi chế biến, ngoài ra thân cây kê cũng có giá trị rất cao trong việc sản xuất nhiên liệu sinh học.

Theo các chuyên gia của dự án thì hệ ADN của kê cũng có những nét tương đồng với hệ gen của lúa, nhưng có những vùng lại mang tính lặp lại phức tạp và kích thước cũng có sự khác biệt. Với việc giải mã thành công hệ gen của cây kê đã giúp khoa học hiểu sâu thêm về các loại cây lương thực đầu vào cho ngành công nghiệp sản xuất nhiên liệu sinh học, như loại cỏ có tên là switchgrass hay giống mía cho năng suất cao. Cho đến nay kê là loại cây lương thực thứ hai sau lúa được giải mã thành công, với xấp xỉ 730 triệu nucleotides, kê có hệ gen lớn gấp 75% so với hệ gen của cây lúa.

**** thucduongohsawa.wordpress.com/2011/05/03/cong-d%E1%BB%A5n...
Một chén chè kê vào những ngày mùa hè có thể giúp bạn giải nhiệt. Nghiên cứu của các nhà khoa học tại Viện Dinh dưỡng Ấn Độ cho thấy, hạt kê còn có tác dụng lợi tiểu, ngừa sỏi thận, tiêu chảy và tiểu đường.Riêng những ai hay bị đau bao tử, mắc chứng khó tiêu dùng hạt kê trong chế độ ăn hằng ngày cũng sẽ có lợi. Kê còn giúp làm sạch miệng, chống hôi miệng do có công dụng làm chậm quá trình sinh sôi nảy nở của các loại vi khuẩn trong miệng. Hạt kê do giàu axit amin và silic nên giúp các thai phụ ngừa sẩy thai và tình trạng nôn ọe mỗi sáng. Kê còn có tác dụng chống các loại nấm trên cơ thể.
Bộ phận dùng: Hạt và mầm hạt (Cốc nha hay Túc nha) - Semen Setariae et Fructus Setariae Germinatus.
Nơi sống và thu hái: Gốc ở Ấn độ, được trồng nhiều để lấy hạt làm lương thực và làm thức ăn gia súc. Cây mọc nhanh, có thể mọc trên các loại đất cát vùng đồng bằng và cả ở trên các vùng núi.
Thành phần hoá học: Sau khi sấy vỏ, hạt chứa 73% hydrat carbon, 10,8% protein và 2,9% lipid. Các acid amin từ protein được giải phóng do sự lên men thấp hơn ở sữa và Lúa mì.
Tính vị, tác dụng: Kê có vị ngọt, tính bình, có tác dụng bổ thận. Ở Ấn độ, được xem như lợi tiểu và thu liễm. Cốc nha có vị ngọt, tính ấm, có tác dụng tiêu thực hoà trung, kiện tỳ khai vị; cốc nha sao lại tiêu thực; còn cốc nha tiêu (sao cháy) có tác dụng làm tiêu tích trệ.
Công dụng: Kê thuộc loại lương thực thường dùng trong nhân dân. Cũng được dùng làm thuốc chữa lậu nhiệt, ho nhiệt, ho khan.
Ở Ấn độ, người ta dùng ngoài trị thấp khớp và là vị thuốc gia dụng làm dịu các cơn đau do sinh đẻ.
Ở Trung quốc, hạt dùng nấu cháo cho người đau dạ dày và bột các hạt đã rang, pha với nước mật dùng cho trẻ em bị bệnh nhọt. Cốc nha dùng chữa ăn uống không tiêu, bụng đầy miệng hôi, tỳ vị hư yếu; kém ăn; cốc nha sao dùng trị kém ăn; cốc nha tiêu dùng trị tích trệ không tiêu. Liều dùng 9-15g.
Đơn thuốc:
1. Chữa âm hư háo khát, mỏi mệt bải hoải sau những buổi thức đêm mất ngủ hay lao động, phòng dục quá độ, trong người hấp nóng, ho, mồ hôi trộm, khó ngủ: dùng hạt Kê nấu chè đường ăn thì mát khoẻ, lại sức.
Lượng vitamin B1, B2 có trong hạt kê cao hơn từ 1 – 1,5 lần so với lúa gạo. Ngoài ra trong hạt kê còn có chứa nhiều nguyên tố vi lượng khác như methionine (một amino axit thiết yếu) vì thế hạt kê có tác dụng duy trì tế bào não, tăng cường trí nhớ và làm giảm quá trình lão hóa.

**** www.mientayonline.net/hat-ke.aspx
Hạt kê là một trong năm loại hạt căn bản của nhà nông Việt Nam. Thế nên không biết từ bao giờ hạt kê đã đi vào các câu chuyện,hay những câu hát ru của người dân Việt Nam " Em tôi buồn ngủ buồn nghê. Thèm ăn cơm nếp cháo kê thịt gà

Một chén chè kê vào những ngày mùa hè có thể giúp bạn giải nhiệt. Nghiên cứu của các nhà khoa học tại Viện Dinh dưỡng Ấn Độ cho thấy, hạt kê còn có tác dụng lợi tiểu, ngừa sỏi thận, tiêu chảy và tiểu đường.Riêng những ai hay bị đau bao tử, mắc chứng khó tiêu dùng hạt kê trong chế độ ăn hằng ngày cũng sẽ có lợi. Kê còn giúp làm sạch miệng, chống hôi miệng do có công dụng làm chậm quá trình sinh sôi nảy nở của các loại vi khuẩn trong miệng. Hạt kê do giàu axit amin và silic nên giúp các thai phụ ngừa sẩy thai và tình trạng nôn ọe mỗi sáng. Kê còn có tác dụng chống các loại nấm trên cơ thể.
Bộ phận dùng: Hạt và mầm hạt (Cốc nha hay Túc nha) - Semen Setariae et Fructus Setariae Germinatus
Nơi sống và thu hái: Gốc ở Ấn độ, được trồng nhiều để lấy hạt làm lương thực và làm thức ăn gia súc. Cây mọc nhanh, có thể mọc trên các loại đất cát vùng đồng bằng và cả ở trên các vùng núi.
Thành phần hoá học: Sau khi sấy vỏ, hạt chứa 73% hydrat carbon, 10,8% protein và 2,9% lipid. Các acid amin từ protein được giải phóng do sự lên men thấp hơn ở sữa và Lúa mì.
Tính vị, tác dụng: Kê có vị ngọt, tính bình, có tác dụng bổ thận. Ở Ấn độ, được xem như lợi tiểu và thu liễm. Cốc nha có vị ngọt, tính ấm, có tác dụng tiêu thực hoà trung, kiện tỳ khai vị; cốc nha sao lại tiêu thực; còn cốc nha tiêu (sao cháy) có tác dụng làm tiêu tích trệ.
Công dụng: Kê thuộc loại lương thực thường dùng trong nhân dân. Cũng được dùng làm thuốc chữa lậu nhiệt, ho nhiệt, ho khan. Ở Ấn độ, người ta dùng ngoài trị thấp khớp và là vị thuốc gia dụng làm dịu các cơn đau do sinh đẻ. Ở Trung quốc, hạt dùng nấu cháo cho người đau dạ dày và bột các hạt đã rang, pha với nước mật dùng cho trẻ em bị bệnh nhọt. Cốc nha dùng chữa ăn uống không tiêu, bụng đầy miệng hôi, tỳ vị hư yếu; kém ăn; cốc nha sao dùng trị kém ăn; cốc nha tiêu dùng trị tích trệ không tiêu. Liều dùng 9-15g.

**** vietbao.vn/Kham-pha-Viet-Nam/Che-hat-ke/1735139065/150/
Mỗi dịp giỗ chạp, cúng quẩy thế nào mẹ tôi cũng nấu món chè kê. Cũng lạ, từ những hạt kê nhỏ xíu, chỉ bằng cái đầu tăm, lại có thể nảy mầm phát triển thành cây kê to khỏe. Cây kê cũng giống như cây lúa, có mùa, có vụ. Trước đây, quê tôi trồng kê nhiều lắm. Đến mùa vụ người ta thu hái kê rồi phơi khô. Những hạt kê màu vàng ươm, nhỏ như trứng cá theo tay bà, tay mẹ sàng sẩy rơi đều từ nia. Ngày trước, đến mùa, hạt kê được phơi thành từng mảng vàng ươm trước sân nhà. Bọn trẻ chúng tôi có nhiệm vụ phải canh chừng không để gà vịt tới gần ăn hạt kê đang phơi.

Hạt kê là nguyên liệu làm nên những món rất ngon. Ví như món bánh tráng kê mà mẹ thường làm: kê đã nấu chín, sau đó phết lên miếng bánh tráng nướng giòn, quết một lớp đậu xanh chín nhuyễn, rắc tiếp một lớp đường nữa là đã có món bánh tráng kê mà tôi rất khoái khẩu. Kê còn được nấu thành dạng cháo lỏng mà ngày trước tụi con nít chúng tôi thường xuyên được thưởng thức. Đây là mốn dễ ăn, lại bổ dưỡng. Nhưng dẫu gì thì món chè kê vẫn là phổ biến nhất và được chuộng cho đến giờ.

Nguyên liệu làm nên bát chè khá giản đơn: hạt kê, lát gừng, mật mía. Tuy vậy, chè kê được chế biến hết sức tỉ mẩn, người nấu phải có sự tinh tế cao. Bí quyết trước tiên là phải biết chọn hạt kê có sắc vàng đậm, loại kê này ngon, đậm đà và dày cơm hơn. Kê nhỏ li ti rất dễ lẫn cát nên phải dùng cái rá chuyên vo gạo để vo kê. Kê đãi sạch, ngâm gần một tiếng đồng hồ rồi bắc nồi nước đun sôi cho kê vào. Phải đun lửa liu riu, khi nồi kê kêu sục sục thì bắt đầu khuấy. Thao tác khuấy phải đều tay, thấy kê chín thì cho đường hoặc mật mía và một ít gừng đã giã nhỏ vào. Nồi chè sánh lại là ngừng lửa ngay. Nếu người chế biến chỉ cần sơ ý khuấy già tay một chút, chè sẽ mất đi hương dịu dàng của hạt kê và vị ngọt lịm của mật mía .

Mỗi lần nhà có việc cúng quẩy, tôi lại được ngồi bên bếp lửa hồng chăm chú xem mẹ nấu chè hạt kê. Nhìn bát chè kê nhỏ nhắn, xinh xinh được múc ra đặt lên bàn thờ, mới biết không phải tự nhiên mà chè kê trở thành nỗi nhớ của người xa quê.

Vietbao (Theo: quehuongonline.vn)

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**** plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=PEGL2
**** en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearl_millet

**** www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Pennisetum+glaucum
Common NamePearl Millet
Family : Poaceae or Gramineae
Synonyms : P.americanum. (L.)Schum. P. typhoideum. Rich.
Known Hazards : None known
Habitats : River banks in sandy soils, common as a weed[74].
Range : E. Asia - China.

Physical Characteristics

Pennisetum glaucum is a ANNUAL growing to 3 m (9ft 10in). It is in flower from Sep to October, and the seeds ripen from Sep to October. The flowers are hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs) and are pollinated by Wind.

Suitable for: light (sandy) and medium (loamy) soils, prefers well-drained soil and can grow in nutritionally poor soil. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It cannot grow in the shade. It prefers dry or moist soil and can tolerate drought.

Habitats
Cultivated Beds :
Edible Parts: Seed.
Edible Uses:
Seed - raw or cooked. It can be used like rice in sweet or savoury dishes, or can be ground into a powder and used as a flour for making bread, porridge etc[74, 105, 183]. The grain is often fermented to make various foods[183] The sweet tasting grains are eaten raw by children[183]. Very nutritious[171].

Medicinal Uses
Plants For A Future can not take any responsibility for any adverse effects from the use of plants. Always seek advice from a professional before using a plant medicinally.

Appetizer; Skin; Tonic.

The plant is appetiser and tonic[240]. It is useful in the treatment of heart diseases[240]. The fruits have been rubbed on open facial pimples in order to get rid of them[257].
Other Uses
None known
Cultivation details
Requires a light well-drained soil in a sunny position[162]. Succeeds in dry infertile soils[160]. This species is the most drought-resistant of all cereal crops[162]. Cultivated for its edible seed in tropical and sub-tropical areas[61, 142], it is especially suited to regions with a short growing season[266]. It is a more problematical crop in Britain, requiring a hot summer if it is to ripen a good crop of seed. There are often not many seeds on the inflorescence[160].

Propagation
Seed - sow spring in a greenhouse. When they are large enough to handle, prick the seedlings out into individual pots and plant them out in early summer.

**** www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/nexus/pennisetum_glaucum_nex.... : Click on link to read more, please.
Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.
Syn.: Pennisetum typhoides (Burm.) Stapf & Hubb.
Pennisetum americanum (L.) Leeke
Poaceae, or Gramineae
Pearl millet, Bullrush millet, Cattail millet

**** www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16666186
Plant Physiol. 1988 Jul;87(3):566-70.
Carbohydrate Responsive Proteins in the Roots of Pennisetum americanum.
Baysdorfer C, Vanderwoude WJ.
Source
United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville, Maryland 20705.
Abstract
The effect of changes in carbohydrate status on the synthesis of specific proteins was investigated in millet (Pennisetum americanum L., Leeke, Tift 23B(1)E(1)) seedlings grown in sterile solution culture. Carbohydrate status was altered by extended darkness and sucrose feeding. Root proteins from intact seedlings were labeled with [(35)S]methionine, phenol-extracted, separated by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis, and visualized by autoradiography. In four separate experiments, two proteins showed a consistent change in labeling when root carbohydrate levels were varied between 200 and 1000 micromole hexose per gram residual dry weight. Labeling of the first protein (P(47), M(r) 47 kD) increased as the carbohydrate levels rose above 500 micromole hexose per gram residual dry weight. Labeling of the second protein (P(34), M(r) 34 kD) increased as carbohydrate levels declined from 500 to 200 micromole hexose per gram residual dry weight. Under extreme conditions, when carbohydrate levels fell below 100 micromole hexose per gram residual dry weight, the labeling pattern of most proteins was drastically altered. It is suggested that P(47) and P(34) are ;carbohydrate responsive proteins,' i.e. proteins whose concentrations are controlled either directly or indirectly by tissue carbohydrate status. In contrast, the changes in protein labeling that occur once carbohydrate pools are depleted may be involved in adaptation to periods of prolonged starvation.

**** www.fao.org/ag/AGP/agpc/doc/Gbase/DATA/Pf000297.HTM

Pennisetum americanum (L.) Leeke




Graminae

Synonyms

P. glaucum (L.) R. Br.; P. typhoides (Burm.) Stapf and C.E. Hubb.
Common names

Bulrush millet, pearl millet, dukn (the Sudan), bajra (India), babala (Natal).
Description

A robust and free-tillering annual growing to a height of 3 m. Stems 10-20 mm thick; above each node is a shallow groove containing an axillary bud. Nodes slightly swollen; they bear a ring of adventitious root primordia at the basal end. Leaves flat, dark green and up to 8 cm wide. The inflorescence forms a compact, cylindrical, terminal, spike-like panicle. There are 870-3 000 spikelets on a panicle. Seeds small, 3-4 mm, wedge-shaped of various colours according to variety.
Distribution

Originated in central tropical Africa, but cultivated since 1200 BC in India. Now widely distributed in the drier tropics.
Season of growth

Summer.
Altitude range

800-1 800 m.
Rainfall requirements

It is grown in areas with an average annual rainfall of 125-900 mm, the lower rainfall areas using it as a grain crop where maize and sorghum fail. It is sown at low populations to allow each plant to find more soil moisture. Where dry matter for forage is the consideration, a minimum rainfall of 500 mm is required. Late rainfall is important for grain development in weeks 5-12.
Drought tolerance

It is drought tolerant. Its roots may penetrate to 360 cm, although 80 percent of the root weight is in the top 10 cm.
Soil requirements

Bulrush millet grows on a wide range of soils, from sands in the Sudan to clays. It is tolerant of very acid soils. It grows best in a well-drained fertile soil.
Ability to spread naturally

Practically nil.
Land preparation for establishment

For good crops it needs full seed-bed preparation as for cereals. In sandy soils in Africa, the ground is dug over with a hoe and weeded prior to planting.
Sowing methods

In peasant areas a few seeds are dropped in holes dug with a hoe, 45-90 cm apart according to rainfall, and covered. Mechanical drilling is common in developed countries.
Sowing depth and cover

Sowing depth varies from 13-50 mm, the optimum being 35-40 mm.
Sowing time and rate

Early summer, at 6-10 kg/ha is usual when drilled in rows 35-70 cm apart.
Number of seeds per kg.

About 187 000.
Seed treatment before planting

Where needed, it can be dusted with a combined insecticide- fungicide. A one-hour soak in 1 percent 2-chloroethanol plus 0.5 percent sodium hypochlorite solution was found to be effective in increasing germination rates.
Tolerance to herbicides

Albert (1961) obtained effective control of the weedy Digitaria ciliaris (sanguinalis) and Amaranthus spp. by pre-emergence application of simazine at 1 kg, and atrazine and propazine at 1 and 2 kg/ha, without crop injury. 2,4-D at 0.5 kg/ha gave good weed control without crop injury if applied 21 days after sowing.
Seedling vigour

Slow in the early stages of growth. It is good as temperature rises to 20-22°C.
Vigour of growth and growth rhythm

Norman (1962a) recognized three distinct development phases: an early tillering period, a period of rapid increase in dry weight and tiller height, and a period of head production. Full tiller production occurred in the fifth week with full light interception. Phillips and Norman (1967) recorded one of the highest growth rates recorded for any species when they measured the variety 'Ingrid Pearl', 14-16 weeks after sowing, as accumulating dry matter at the rate of 58 g/m2 per day. Flowering occurs about the thirteenth week.
Response to defoliation

In the United States, three cuts of highly palatable green fodder are taken at six- to seven-week intervals. Late-maturing varieties are favoured for forage production. High regrowth yields after defoliation can best be obtained if the cutting height is above the apical meristem, and it is suggested that the crop be grazed rotationally when about 45 cm tall. Regrowth after later harvests declines rapidly (Begg, 1965).
Grazing management

Pearl millet should be subject to relatively frequent but lenient defoliation to maintain quality. The crop should not be allowed to grow above 1 m high before grazing starts. Forage intake varied from a high of 3.1 kg DM/100 kg body weight on immature forage to a low of 1.4 kg on mature forage over a five-year period (Ferraris, 1973). Density of tiller regrowth after cutting was reduced from 54 percent when cut at 4 weeks to about 3 percent when cut at 14-16 weeks.
Dry-matter and green-matter yields

A yield of 21 735 kg DM/ha was recorded at Katherine, Northern Territory, Australia. In Alabama, United States, forage dry-matter yields varied from 6 000-10 500 kg/ha with 40 kg N/ha applied at sowing and again for each cut.
In Queensland, Australia, Douglas (1974) recorded the following comparative dry-matter yields between Sudan grasses and pearl millet on a fertile, irrigated soil.
Suitability for hay and silage

Little hay has been made, and Norman and Stewart (1964) preferred a standing mature crop for dry-season grazing to conservation. However, the crop has been ensiled successfully in several countries (Ghana, Nigeria, the United States, Zimbabwe), and has proved the equal of maize silage when cut at eight to 12 weeks (full flowering). Chapman (1978), in Natal, found the best time to harvest was three weeks after flowering, when its dry-matter yield compared favourably with maize.
Value as a standover or deferred feed

Norman and Stewart (1964) found the crop excellent for dry-season grazing by beef cattle, and live-weight gains averaged 296 kg/ha over 16 weeks at Katherine, Northern Territory Australia, during a period when live weight on native pasture declined.
Toxicity

Grazing lactating cows on millet has led to marked butterfat depression, and it has been suggested (Schneider et al., 1970) that high succinic and oxalic acids may be the cause. Under heavy nitrogen fertilization, high nitrate may be recorded. HCN contents are not sufficiently high to be hazardous to stock.
Seed yield

Millet hybrids have been known to yield up to 6 t grain per hectare, but yields in the Northern Territory of Australia have been nearer 600 kg/ha.
Cultivars

'Katherine Pearl'
derived from seed introduced from Ghana and developed by CSIRO Australia, at Katherine, Northern Territory. It requires a growing season of three to four months from sowing to flowering, and a day length of 12-12.5 hours for flower formation. A high producer of dry matter and crude protein during the wet season, averaging almost 12 000 kg DM/ha per year over an 11-year period. Grain yields averaged 650 kg/ha. The crude protein content of the young plant reaches 28 percent but decreases to 8 percent at maturity. The seed is pearly white to grey.
'Ingrid Pearl'
introduced to Australia from West Africa. It has leaves which are less hairy, lighter green and wider than 'Katherine Pearl'. Seeds are smaller, yellow or greenish-grey, and very tightly packed in the seed- head. It flowers one to two weeks earlier than 'Katherine Pearl' and hence is more suited to a short wet season.
'Tamworth'
selected from crosses of cv. Gahi, bred in Georgia, United States. It is mainly used for late summer and autumn grazing in the coastal districts of New South Wales.
'MX 001'
the first hybrid Pennisetum millet produced commercially in Australia. It produces fine-leaved forage from vigorously tillering plants. It matures early- to mid-season, after making rapid initial growth (Douglas, 1974).
'Kawanda 4'
a high-yielding variety in Uganda, yielding 18 135 kg/ha of dry matter, with 10.2 percent protein.
Hybrids P 99, P 97 and P 81
resulting from crosses between P. purpureum and P. americanum. They have proved very productive in Uganda, P 99 being the best. Mugerwa and Ogwang (1979) suggest cutting at eight to ten weeks for direct feeding or conservation as silage. The yields of hybrids P 99, P 97 and P 81 were 20 726, 20 344 and 17 378 kg/ha of dry matter, and 9.8, 9.1 and 7.8 percent crude protein respectively.
'Starr'
a synthetic variety developed by pooling selfed seeds from a number of leafy, medium-tall, uniformly-maturing F1 progenies from a wide cross (Burton & Powell, 1968).
'Tiflate'
a short-day, photoperiod-sensitive, late-maturing synthetic that remains vegetative throughout the long summer season in Georgia, United States. It is leafier, easier to manage, gives better seasonal distribution of forage, and lasts longer than 'Starr' (Burton & Powell, 1968).
'Gahi 1'
similar to 'Starr', but is capable of yielding 25-30 percent more forage. It is a first-generation chance hybrid (Burton & Powell, 1968).
'Tiff 23A'
produces high forage yields in the United States and improves the quality (digestibility and disease resistance) of its hybrids (Burton, 1970).
'Millex 22'
a commercial variety of hybrid pearl millet in the United States, produced by crossing selected males on Tift 23A pearl millet (Burton, 1970).
'Anand'
the most suitable fodder cultivar in Haryana, India (Singh et al., 1977).
Pennisetum americanum x P. purpureum hybrids
hybrid pennisetums, such as Napier-bajra hybrid, elephant-bajra hybrid or hybrid Napier on cv. Gajraj and cv. Pusa Giant Napier, give very high fodder yields. The all-India trials yielded 200-400 tonnes green forage per hectare per year. It is palatable and readily eaten by cattle and sheep, and is a good standover forage for maintenance only. It is useful for silage. Seed-producing F1 hybrids have not yet been obtained (Muldoon & Pearson, 1979).
Diseases

The main diseases, among many listed by Ferraris (1973), are smuts (caused by Helminthosporium spp.), downy mildew and top rot. In Queensland, a leaf spot is caused by a fungus, Cercospora.
Main attributes

It is the main cereal in semi-arid regions where sorghum cannot be profitable. It is a palatable, high-yielding summer forage, generally free from HCN; it can exploit soil nutrients to the full and tolerate water stress.
Main deficiencies

It is a little coarse for hay.
Optimum temperature for growth

Summer temperatures should be high. Maximum germination occurs at a day/night temperature of 20/25°C (R.M. Hughes, 1979).
Minimum temperature for growth

7.0°C + 6.3. Low temperatures retard germination and at 10°C, photosynthesis is negligible (Russell & Webb, 1976).
Frost tolerance

Temperatures near 0°C are lethal.
Latitudinal limits

14-32°N and S (Russell & Webb, 1976).y
Ability to compete with weeds

Most crops of pearl millet are sown in rows and cultivated between the rows. Where fodder crops are grown at high densities the crop canopy suppresses weed growth.
Maximum germination and quality required for sale

70 percent germinable seed, 97.3 percent purity (Queensland).
Pests

In Africa one of the worst pests is the root parasite, Striga hermonthica, and less commonly S. Iutea. The red-billed weaver bird, locusts and Quelea quelea aethiopica take heavy toll. Heliothis armigera attacks seed-heads, and the stem borer, Coniesta ignefusalis, is also damaging. Ferraris (1973) gives a full list of pests.
Palatability

Young pearl millet is very palatable.
Response to photoperiod

Both day-neutral and short-day varieties exist. Burton and Powell (1968) suggested that short-day, photoperiod-sensitive, late-maturing millets should be superior to the other lines since they are leafier and have a better seasonal distribution of forage production. Grain production would best be improved by the use of photoperiod-insensitive types which mature early. The crop would thus escape drought and could be planted several times a year if conditions were favourable.
Chemical analysis and digestibility

The crude protein content depends on the age of the crop, young growth giving the highest proportion. Dry- matter digestibility ranges from 75.3 percent in young pearl millet leaves to 61.4 percent in old leaves. The lowest digestibility figure was 55 percent in mature, previously-grazed stands which were making slow recovery (see also Digitaria ciliaris).
Natural habitat

Cultivation.
Tolerance to flooding

It does not tolerate flooding, especially during the summer.
Fertilizer requirements

Bulrush millet is seldom manured by villagers in Africa; in India, farmyard manure may be used, and African nomads plant it on village cattle camps when the herds go on trek. The most common fertilizer element in use under cultivation is nitrogen at 60-100 kg N/ha, balanced with about half this level of P2O5, and potassium as needed. For use as fodder higher nitrogen dressings may be used. Bulrush millet has an outstanding ability to recover deep accumulations of nitrate nitrogen from soils. In the United States, fodder dry matter responds to fertilizer nitrogen up to 400 kg/ha.
Compatibility with other grasses and legumes

It is usually grown as a pure stand. In India it has been grown with Cajanus cajan, the mixture providing a useful cover to reduce soil erosion.
Genetics and reproduction

2n=14; the haploid chromosome number in pollen mother cells is thus 7. Burton and Powell (1968) consider millet to be an excellent plant for genetic and cytogenetic research, as the small number of large chromosomes and the clear meiotic stages allow detailed study. Interspecific hybridization of P. americanum has usually only been successful with P. purpureum. Bana grass is one such cross and is widely used in south-east Queensland as a wind- break on vegetable farms; it also provides useful fodder. A millet-breeding unit is centred on the EAAFRO, Serere Research Station in Uganda and at Coastal Plains Research Station, Tifton, Georgia, United States.
Seed production and harvesting

Seeds are ready to harvest three to four weeks after anthesis. They vary from 3 to 10 mg in weight. Uneven ripening of tillers necessitates multiple harvests where manual methods are used. The seed can be harvested directly by combines, but for tall varieties a roller attached in front of the comb will make the harvesting height easier to handle.
Economics

Pearl millet is an important grain crop in Africa where the rainfall is not secure enough for sorghum or maize. In the United States and Australia it is a useful, non-toxic forage to replace forage sorghum. The stalks are used in the dry tropics for home building.
Animal production

In southern Africa, pearl millet yielded an average of 25.2 tonnes of green matter (Haylett, 1961). Clark, Hemken and Vandersall (1965) found pearl millet equivalent to Sudan grass and a sorghum x Sudan grass hybrid for dry- matter yield, carrying capacity and milk yield for lactating cows. Carrying capacity varied from 4.7 to 6.7 cows per hectare per day with millet over a three-year period, and adjusted milk production averaged 19.8 kg per day. Body weight losses were least with millet. The grazing season averaged 121 days. At Katherine, in the Northern Territory, Australia, wet season grazing by beef cattle at a stocking rate of 2.5 beasts per hectare produced a live-weight gain of 102 kg per head in 20-24 weeks, an increase of 51 kg per head over native pasture (Norman, 1963b). Cattle grazing standing millet in the dry season made an average live-weight gain of 269 kg/ha over 16 weeks, during a period when animals grazing natural pasture lost weight (Norman & Stewart, 1964). Between January and March in the Macquarie Valley, New South Wales, irrigated cv. MX 001 yielded 18 950 kg DM/ha and 274 kg/ha of live-weight gain, 0.95 kg per day on a per caput basis (Upton, 1978). At Katherine, Northern Territory, Norman and Phillips (1968) conducted 18 grazing trials (from 1960 to 1967) with pearl millet.
Further reading

Burton & Powell, 1968; Ferraris, 1973; Muldoon & Pearson, 1979; Vicente-Chandler, Silva & Figarella, 1959.
Dormancy

Several reports state that the seed of pearl millet exhibits post harvest dormancy of several weeks.
Value for erosion control

In pure stands (for seed production) it affords little soil protection, but in dense stands (for forage production) or in conjunction with a legume, for example Cajanus cajan in India, it is useful.
Tolerance to salinity

It is tolerant of salinity and was used for reclamation of salt lands in Sind because of its ability to take up salts (Tamhane & Mulwani, 1937; Ravikovitch & Porath, 1967). Soil salt concentrations of 1 400 to 2 600 ppm produced only slight tip burn (Smith & Clark, 1968).#S
Links for the genus:

Grass genera of the world: Rich information about the genus, photographs, drawings and links to other grasses
The Pennisetum genus: Description and links to other Poaceae
Species, cultivars, culture and propagation
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